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Katla (volcano)

Coordinates: 63°38′N 19°03′W / 63.633°N 19.050°W / 63.633; -19.050
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses, see Katla (disambiguation).

Katla
Katla eruption, 1918
Highest point
Elevation1,512 m (4,961 ft)[1]
ListingList of volcanoes in Iceland
Coordinates63°38′N 19°03′W / 63.633°N 19.050°W / 63.633; -19.050
Geography
Katla is located in Iceland
Katla
Katla
Iceland
Geology
Mountain typeSubglacial volcano
Last eruptionOctober 12, 1918[a] (Major)[2]
July 17, 1999[b] (Minor)[3]
Map
Selected geological features near the Katla central volcano and its Eldgjá fissure swarm (red outlines). Other shading shows:    calderas,   central volcanoes and   fissure swarms,   subglacial terrain above 1,100 m (3,600 ft), and   seismically active areas. Clicking on the image enlarges to full window and enables mouse-over with more detail.

Katla (Icelandic pronunciation: [ˈkʰahtla] ⓘ) is an active volcano in southern Iceland. This volcano has been very active historically with at least twenty documented major eruptions since 2920 BC. In its recent history though, Katla has been less active as the last major eruption occurred in 1918. These eruptions have had a Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) of between 4 and 5 on a scale of 0 to 8. In comparison, the Eyjafjallajökull 2010 eruption had a VEI of 4. Larger VEI-5 eruptions are comparable to Mount St. Helens 1980 eruption. Several smaller (minor) eruptions measuring VEI-1 and below have occurred since, with the most recent being in 1999.[4]

Katla is one of the largest volcanic sources of carbon dioxide (CO2) on Earth, accounting for up to 4% of total global volcanic carbon dioxide emissions.[5] It has produced very large glacial outburst floods.

Geography and physical appearances[edit]

Katla is one of the largest volcanoes in Iceland.[6] It is situated to the north of Vík í Mýrdal and to the east of the smaller glacier Eyjafjallajökull. Its peak reaches 1,512 metres (4,961 ft) and is partially covered by the Mýrdalsjökull glacier. The system has an area of 595 km2 (230 sq mi). The Eldgjá canyon is part of the same volcanic system,[7][8] and extends as a fissure swarm to the north-east. The lavas from this eruption in 939 to 940 almost reach the south eastern coast, although are partially buried.[9]

The caldera of the Katla volcano has a diameter of 10 km (6 mi) and is covered with 200–700 metres (660–2,300 ft) of ice. The volcano normally erupts every 40–80 years.[6] The flood discharge at the peak of an eruption in 1755 has been estimated at 200,000–400,000 m3/s (7.1–14.1 million cu ft/sec), comparable to the combined average discharge of the Amazon, Mississippi, Nile, and Yangtze rivers (about 266,000 m3/s (9.4 million cu ft/sec)).

Etymology[edit]

The name Katla derives from the word ketill ("kettle"), referring to the form of the volcano. Katla is also used as a female first name.[10]

Historic activity[edit]

Locations of caldera rim and previous eruptions from 1755 to 1999.

At least twenty-eight eruptions with a known VEI have been recorded for Katla since 2920 BC. The last major eruption started on 12 October 1918 and lasted for 24 days.[2] It was likely a VEI-5 level eruption. The 1918 eruption resulted in extending the southern coast by 5 km (3.1 mi) due to laharic flood deposits. Its present dormancy is among the longest in known history.[11]

Most of these eruptions resulted in glacial floods (jökulhlaup). Some have been associated with catastrophic flooding which results from peak discharges of more than 100,000 m3/s (3,500,000 cu ft/s),[12] which is ten to a hundred times the size of jökulhlaup's within living memory in Iceland.[13] Apart from the 1755 and 1918 eruptions already mentioned in this regard, both of which like the majority of large floods drained onto the Mýrdalssandur plain to the volcanoes south-east, an eruption in 874 drained from the north-east aspect of the caldera down the Markarfljót river flood plain to the mountain's south-west. This is a convulted route that outputs on to a large flood plain, the Markarfljótsaurar.[13] Before the Hringvegur (Iceland's Ring Road) was constructed in 1974, people feared traversing the plains in front of the volcano because of the frequent jökulhlaup (or glacier bursts) and the deep river crossings.

Recent activity[edit]

Schematic cross-section from west to east across the Eyjafjallajökull and Katla volcanoes. Magmatic intrusions are drawn in red, rhyolitic domes and the cryptodome in yellow; glaciers are shown in light blue.

Katla has been showing signs of unrest since 1999, and geologists have concerns that it might erupt in the near future.[14] Particularly, monitoring has been intensified following the March 2010 eruptions of a smaller neighbouring volcano, the Eyjafjallajökull glacier.[15] The eruption of this nearby long-dormant volcano in March and April 2010 prompted fears among some geophysicists that it might trigger an eruption at the larger and more dangerous Katla.[16][17][18] In the past 1,000 years, all three known eruptions of Eyjafjallajökull have triggered subsequent Katla eruptions.[17]

Following the 2010 Eyjafjallajökull eruptions, on 20 April 2010 Icelandic President Ólafur Grímsson said "the time for Katla to erupt is coming close ... we [Iceland] have prepared ... it is high time for European governments and airline authorities all over Europe and the world to start planning for the eventual Katla eruption".[19]

Increased earthquake activity had been noticed on Katla since the eruption at Eyjafjallajökull, but no other signs of an imminent eruption were observed. These quakes are located mainly on the northwestern rim of the caldera. On 9 October 2010, a sudden rise in harmonic tremor was observed in the stations around Katla, but although a sign of a possible impending eruption,[20] none occurred.

2011 activity[edit]

In 2011, geologic activity led many to speculate that a very small subglacial eruption had taken place.[4] In June 2011, harmonic tremor was again detected at Katla volcano. A few days later, an earthquake swarm took place in the caldera, indicating magma movement inside the volcano, leading to increased fears of an eruption in the near future.[21]

On 8 and 9 July, another spike in harmonic tremors occurred, as a small eruption of Katla took place. Cracks formed on the glacier, as well as a cauldron.[22] Icelandic media reported a small subglacial eruption might have started.[23] On the morning of 9 July, a glacier flood was reported in the river Múlakvísl, and also later in the river Skálm. The bridge across Múlakvísl was destroyed as well as other parts of the road, Route 1, on the Icelandic ring road. Helicopter pilots flying over the glacier also reported cracks in the glacier.[24] Scientists monitoring the activity said speculation that it was caused by a "very small" subglacial eruption lacked confirmation by visual or seismic evidence.[4]

2016 and 2017 activity[edit]

Tremors were detected under Katla in late August 2016.[25][26]

A "Specialist Description" describing the activity on 29 August 2016 noted that there was:

... a seismic swarm in Mýrdalsjökull on the 29th of August with two events in the northern Katla caldera rim measured at magnitude 4.5. These are the biggest earthquakes in Katla volcano since 1977. Earthquake eruption checks confirmed that most earthquakes occurred between 0:40 and 1:50 PM. The big earthquakes were about thirty seconds apart at 1:47. They were followed by more than 50 aftershocks until 15:12 PM, when there was an earthquake of magnitude 3.3 and then the cycle and seismic activity in the region reduced again. No unrest was measured along these earthquakes. The geothermal has decreased in the following week and is now negligible.[27]

An update written at 11 Sep 16:38 GMT reported:

Today, shortly before 14:00, a small earthquake swarm began in Mýrdalsjökull. The largest earthquakes of the swarm were of magnitude 3.3 and 3.0 at 16:12 and 15:57. More than 10 smaller earthquakes were detected in the swarm. All of the earthquakes were shallow and located in the caldera of Katla volcano. It is not unusual for seismic swarms of this type to occur in this area.[28]

In February 2017, seismic activity at the volcano continued.[29]

Eruptions
Start Date[3] End Date[3] VEI[3] Scale Tephra volume[c]
(km3)[3] 		Summary
July 17, 1999 August 15, 1999 0 Minor Un­known This eruption is uncertain, and could have been subglacial
June 25, 1955 Un­known 0 Minor Un­known This eruption is uncertain, and could have been subglacial
October 12, 1918 November 4, 1918 4+ Major 700 Last major eruption of Katla.
May 8, 1860 May 27, 1860 4 Major 200 Dated using historical records.
June 26, 1823 July 23, 1823 3 Minor 100 This eruption was dated using historical records. The eruption "VEI" is speculated.
October 17, 1755 February 13, 1756 5 Major 1500 This eruption was dated using historical records. The eruption "VEI" is speculated.
May 11, 1721 October 15, 1721[d] 5 Major 1200 This eruption was dated using historical records. The eruption "VEI" is speculated.
November 3, 1660 1661 4 Major 200 Dated using historical records.
September 2, 1625 September 14, 1625 5 Major 1500 Dated using historical records.
October 12, 1612 Un­known 4 Major 200 Dated using historical records.
August 11, 1580 Un­known 4 Major 200 Dated using historical records.
1550 Un­known 4 Major 200 The estimated date is based on tephrochronology.
1500 Un­known 4 Major 200 The estimated date is based on tephrochronology.
1440 Un­known 4 Major 200 Dated using historical records.
1416 Un­known 4 Major 200 While this eruption is dated using historical records, the VEI and tephra volume amounts are speculated.
1357[e] Un­known 4 Major 700 Dated using historical records.
1262 Un­known 5 Major 1500 Dated using historical records.
1245 Un­known 4 Major 200 Dated using historical records.
1210 Un­known 4 Major 100 The estimated date is based on tephrochronology.
1177 Un­known 3 Minor 10 Dated using historical records.
960 Un­known 3 Minor 50 The estimated date is based on tephrochronology.
939[9] 940[9] 4 Major 5000 The estimated VEI is based on an ice core. Dated using historical records, ice core and tephrochronology
920 Un­known 4 Major 200 Dated using historical records.
270[f] Un­known 3 Minor 85 Based on radiocarbon dating.
-850 850 BC[g] Un­known 4 Major 290 Based on radiocarbon dating.
-1220 1220 BC[h] Un­known 3 Minor 65 Based on radiocarbon dating.
-1440 1440 BC[i] Un­known 4 Major 220 Based on radiocarbon dating.
-1920 1920 BC Un­known 4 Major 130 Based on radiocarbon dating.
-2920 2920 BC Un­known 3 Minor 75 The estimated date is based on tephrochronology.
Map
About OpenStreetMaps
Maps: terms of use
7km
4miles
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From Entujökull down Markarfljót
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From Entujökull down Markarfljót
From Entujökull down Markarfljót
Ice cauldron 20ref.
C20
Ice cauldron 20ref.
Ice cauldron 15ref.
C15
Ice cauldron 15ref.
Ice cauldron 14ref.
C14
Ice cauldron 14ref.
Ice cauldron 13ref.
C13
Ice cauldron 13ref.
Ice cauldron 12ref.
C12
Ice cauldron 12ref.
Ice cauldron 11ref.
C11
Ice cauldron 11ref.
Ice cauldron 10ref.
C10
Ice cauldron 10ref.
Ice cauldron 18 in region of 1823 eruptionref.
C18
Ice cauldron 18 in region of 1823 eruptionref.
Ice cauldron 16 in region of 1823 eruptionref.
C16
Ice cauldron 16 in region of 1823 eruptionref.
Ice cauldron 9 in region of 1918 eruptionref.
C9
Ice cauldron 9 in region of 1918 eruptionref.
Ice cauldron 17 in region of 1918 eruptionref.
C17
Ice cauldron 17 in region of 1918 eruptionref.
Ice cauldron 8 in region of 1918 eruptionref.
C8
Ice cauldron 8 in region of 1918 eruptionref.
Ice cauldron 19ref.
C19
Ice cauldron 19ref.
Ice cauldron 7ref.
C7
Ice cauldron 7ref.
Ice cauldron 6 in region of 1755 eruptionref.
C6
Ice cauldron 6 in region of 1755 eruptionref.
Ice cauldron 5 in region of 1755 eruptionref.
C5
Ice cauldron 5 in region of 1755 eruptionref.
Ice cauldron 4ref.
C4
Ice cauldron 4ref.
Ice cauldron 3ref.
C3
Ice cauldron 3ref.
Ice cauldron 2ref.
C2
Ice cauldron 2ref.
Ice cauldron 1ref.
C1
Ice cauldron 1ref.
8
From Jökulsárgilsjökull towards Jökulsárgil
7
From Sólheimajökull towards Sólheimasandur
6
From Múlakvísl river area towards Kerlingardalsfjara beach
5
From Kötlujökull to Múlakvísl river area of Mýrdalssandur towards Höfðabrekkufjara beach
4
From Kötlujökull towards Kötlutangi beaches
3
From Kötlujökull to Blautakvísl river area of Mýrdalssandur
2
From Kötlujökull to Austastikælir stream
1
From Kötlujökull to Leirá
Arrows show jökulhlaup flows from Mýrdalsjökull ice cap. Current ice cauldrons are shown in violet:[30][13]: 17 [31][j]
1:from Kötlujökull to Leirá in 1721, 1755, 1918
2:from Kötlujökull to Austastikælir stream in 1612, 1625, 1660, 1721, 1755, 1823, 1860, 1918
3:from Kötlujökull to Blautakvísl river area of Mýrdalssandur in (1625), 1660, 1755, 1823, 1918
4:from Kötlujökull to Múlakvísl river area of Mýrdalssandur towards Kötlutangi and Höfðabrekkufjara beaches in 1612, 1625, 1660, 1721, 1755, 1823, 1860, 1918
5:from Kötlujökull to Múlakvísl river area of Mýrdalssandur towards Höfðabrekkufjara beach in 1612, 1625, 1660, 1721, 1755, 1823, 1860, 1918, 1955, 1999, 2011, 2014, 2017
6:from Múlakvísl river area towards Kerlingardalsfjara beach in 1660, 1721, 1755, 1823, 1860
7:from Sólheimajökull towards Sólheimasandur in 1860, 1999
8:from Jökulsárgilsjökull towards Jökulsárgil in 1936
9:from Entujökull down Markarfljót in 874.

Other activity[edit]

As well as eruptions Katla is host to geothermal systems and these contribute to many of the smaller jökulhlaups from the mountain. Jökulhlaup triggering at Mýrdalsjökull may result from geothermal processes, and ice dams and their sudden removal by floating of the ice above a lake of melt water. Some eruptions could be secondary to the removal of overpressure by a jökulhlaup.[33] There are currently at least 20 ice cauldrons known related to the geothermal areas within the caldera. These are often manifest as depressions in the ice cap rather than full thickness to the underlying rock cauldrons and have variable activity.[32]: 71  Geothermal waters with a high volcanic mineral and gas content are produced and can result in both gas and water pollution.[30]

Risks[edit]

The area of the volcano contributes to the most serious natural hazard area of Iceland.[34]. The most likely large eruption had in 2019 a 89% probability of occuring within 30 years and would likely be associated with tephra production of about 1.5 km3 (0.36 cu mi) which can be compared with the 0.25 km3 (0.060 cu mi) that disrupted air travel from the second phase of the 2010 eruptions of Eyjafjallajökull.[13]: 74 [35] It is most likely to occur in the months June to September, and be associated with a jökulhlaup flowing from Kotlujökull an outlet glacier to the south-east, over Mýrdalssandur to the sea where it could affect the town of Vík í Mýrdal.[13]: 28, 31 

Monitoring[edit]

Because of such risks the volcano is intensiely monitored. The Icelandic Meteorological Office updates its website with reports of quakes both at Eyjafjallajökull and Katla.[36] Continuous monitoring includes for seismic flood tremor, water gauges and water conductivity given the flood risk.[37] The ice cauldrons of Mýrdalsjökull are also monitored.[30]

Folklore[edit]

"Katla eða Kötlugjá" redirects here

In folklore, the witch named Katla is held responsible for causing the jökulhlaup (outburst) of the Mýrdalsjökull glacier over the volcano; these events are dubbed Kötluhlaup (or "Katla's eruption"[38]).[39] The folktale recorded by Jón Árnason in 1862[40] probably dates much older since it is set in the time of the Þykkvabæjarklaustur [is], the Catholic monastery abolished c. 1550.[41]

The short folktale entitled "Katla eða Kötlugjá" can be summarized as follows: In the pre-Reformation days when the Þykkvibær monastery was installed with an abbot, they had a cranky housekeeper there named Katla, well versed in (ancient) magic (fjölkynngi), instilling fear in others.[41] She owned a magical pair of breeches (brók, 'trousers'), which allowed its wearer to run endlessly without fatigue, but herself reserved its use for an emergency. One day in autumn, the abbot's shepherd Barði has trouble rounding up the sheep before master and the housekeep return from a banquet, and he borrows the breeches to retrieve the stray. Katla discovers the transgression and ambushes him, drowning him in a vat of sour whey (sýruker).[42] But as winter wore on, the whey began to dwindle and Katla was heard muttering "Barði will soon appear".[43] Realizing the discovery of her crime and punishment was imminent, she put on her breeches and disappeared to the northwest, presumably diving straight into the glacier. Right afterwards a glacial outburst (jökulhlaup) occurred that rushed towards the monastery and Álftaver [is].[40][44]

Other geologic features such as Kötlugja ('Katla's gorge') and the surrounding area made desolate, named Kötlusandur also bear names alluding to the Katla folklore.[44]

Images[edit]

  • The Mýrdalsjökull glacier in 2005
    The Mýrdalsjökull glacier in 2005
  • The Mýrdalsjökull glacier in 2005
    The Mýrdalsjökull glacier in 2005

In popular culture[edit]

Katla is the subject of Katla, an Icelandic TV series produced for Netflix.

See also[edit]

Notes[edit]

  1. ^ The 1918 eruption lasted until November 4 of that year
  2. ^ The 1918 eruption lasted until August 15 of that year
  3. ^ In millions
  4. ^ ±45 days
  5. ^ ±3 years
  6. ^ ±12 years
  7. ^ ±50 years
  8. ^ ±12 years
  9. ^ ±40 years
  10. ^ The ice cauldrons mapped on this page are those that have been defined in the literature and in the public facing aspect of the University of Iceland data base at the time of map preparation. There have been activity changes,[32] and positions in the literature may have changed slightly with time, so the first position post GPS is used.

References[edit]

Citations
  1. ^ "Katla Volcano". Institute of Earth Sciences. University of Iceland. Archived from the original on 9 November 2009. Retrieved 12 March 2010.
  2. ^ a b "Katla Volcano News". Retrieved 18 October 2014.
  3. ^ a b c d e "Global Volcanism Program – Katla". Archived from the original on 22 April 2010. Retrieved 18 October 2014.
  4. ^ a b c "Katla volcano in Iceland remains dormant". IceNews. 9 July 2011. Archived from the original on 15 August 2012. Retrieved 9 July 2011.
  5. ^ Ilyinskaya, Evgenia; Mobbs, Stephen; Burton, Ralph; Burton, Mike; Pardini, Federica; Pfeffer, Melissa Anne; Purvis, Ruth; Lee, James; Bauguitte, Stéphane (2018). "Globally significant CO2 emissions from Katla, a subglacial volcano in Iceland" (PDF). Geophysical Research Letters. 45 (19): 10, 332–10, 341. Bibcode:2018GeoRL..4510332I. doi:10.1029/2018gl079096. ISSN 0094-8276. S2CID 52832814.
  6. ^ a b Budd, David A.; Troll, Valentin R.; Dahren, Börje; Burchardt, Steffi (2016). "Persistent multitiered magma plumbing beneath Katla volcano, Iceland". Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems. 17 (3): 966–980. Bibcode:2016GGG....17..966B. doi:10.1002/2015GC006118. ISSN 1525-2027.
  7. ^ "Katla". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 26 March 2010.
  8. ^ Gudmundsson, Magnús T.; Thórdís Högnadóttir (January 2007). "Volcanic systems and calderas in the Vatnajökull region, central Iceland: Constraints on crustal structure from gravity data". Journal of Geodynamics. 43 (1): 153–169. Bibcode:2007JGeo...43..153G. doi:10.1016/j.jog.2006.09.015.
  9. ^ a b c Moreland, William Michael; Thordarson, Thor; Houghton, Bruce F.; Larsen, Gudrún (28 August 2019). "Driving mechanisms of subaerial and subglacial explosive episodes during the 10th century Eldgjá fissure eruption, southern Iceland" (PDF). Volcanica. 2 (2): 129–150. doi:10.30909/vol.02.02.129150. ISSN 2610-3540. S2CID 202923626.
  10. ^ "Katla – Nordic Names Wiki – Name Origin, Meaning and Statistics". Retrieved 18 October 2014.
  11. ^ "The Katla eruption in 1918". Institute of Earth Sciences. University of Iceland. Archived from the original on 2 November 2005. Retrieved 4 May 2010.
  12. ^ "Glacial outburst floods". Icelandic Met Office. 2015. Retrieved 15 June 2024.
  13. ^ a b c d e McCluskey, O. (2019). Constraining the characteristics of a future volcanogenic Jökulhlaup from Katla, Iceland, through seismic analysis and probabilistic hydraulic modelling, Master’s thesis (Thesis). School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Portsmouth. pp. 1–121. Retrieved 10 June 2024.
  14. ^ Soosalu, Heidi. "Katla seismicity". Institute of Earth Sciences. University of Iceland. Archived from the original on 4 November 2007. Retrieved 12 March 2010.
  15. ^ "Hard to Predict How Long Iceland Eruption Will Last". Iceland Review. Iceland. 21 March 2010. Archived from the original on 5 June 2011. Retrieved 21 March 2010.
  16. ^ Volcano erupts in south Iceland BBC online news. Retrieved 21 March 2010.
  17. ^ a b Boyes, Roger (21 March 2010). "Iceland prepares for second, more devastating volcanic eruption". The Times. London. Retrieved 22 March 2010.
  18. ^ "Icelandic Volcano May Cause Bigger Eruption". Reuters. 22 March 2010. Retrieved 20 April 2010.
  19. ^ "BBC Newsnight interview with President Grímsson of Iceland, 20 April 2010". Retrieved 18 October 2014.
  20. ^ Frímann, Jón. "Sudden rise in harmonic tremors around Katla and Eyjafjallajökull". Iceland Volcano and Earthquake Blog. Archived from the original on 12 October 2010. Retrieved 30 December 2010.
  21. ^ Frímann, Jón (17 June 2011). "Earthquake swarm in Katla volcano". Iceland Volcano and Earthquake Blog. Archived from the original on 4 May 2012. Retrieved 18 October 2011.
  22. ^ "Katla". Global Volcanism Program. Retrieved 18 October 2014.
  23. ^ "Hlaup hafið í Múlakvísl". Morgunblaðið (in Icelandic). 9 July 2011. Retrieved 18 October 2011.
  24. ^ "Sjá sprungur í jöklinum". Morgunblaðið (in Icelandic). 9 July 2011. Retrieved 18 October 2011.
  25. ^ "Earthquake Activity Page". vedur.is. Icelandic Meteorological Office. Retrieved 29 August 2016.
  26. ^ "Largest quakes to hit Katla volcano in decades". icelandreview.com/. Archived from the original on 14 October 2017. Retrieved 29 August 2016.
  27. ^ "11.9.2016". vedur.is. Icelandic Meteorological Office. 11 September 2016.
  28. ^ "[no title cited]". vedur.is. Icelandic Meteorological Office.
  29. ^ "Continuing seismic activity in the Katla volcano". Iceland Monitor. 2 February 2017.
  30. ^ a b c "Katla - Monitoring of ice cauldrons". Institute of Earth Sciences, University of iceland. Retrieved 15 June 2024.
  31. ^ "Search:Múlakvísl & Mýrdalssandur". Icelandic Met Office. Retrieved 15 June 2024.
  32. ^ a b Guðmundsson, Magnús T.; Högnadóttir, Þ.; Kristinsson, A.B.; Guðbjörnsson, S (2007). "Geothermal activity in the subglacial Katla caldera, Iceland, 1999–2005, studied with radar altimetry" (PDF). Annals of Glaciology. 45. Bibcode:2007AnGla..45...66G. doi:10.3189/172756407782282444. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 August 2020. Retrieved 14 August 2020.
  33. ^ Björnsson, H. (2003). "Subglacial lakes and jökulhlaups in Iceland". Global and Planetary Change. 35 (3–4): 255–271. Bibcode:2003GPC....35..255B. doi:10.1016/S0921-8181(02)00130-3.
  34. ^ Sigurðsson, O. (2010). "5 Variations of Mýrdalsjökull during postglacial and historical times". Developments in Quaternary Sciences. 13: 69–78. doi:10.1016/S1571-0866(09)01305-0.
  35. ^ Erica R. Hendry "What We Know From the Icelandic Volcano Archived 26 April 2010 at the Wayback Machine," Smithsonian, 22 April 2010. Retrieved April 2010.
  36. ^ "Iceland Meteorological office – Earthquakes Mýrdalsjökull, Iceland". Icelandic Meteorological office. Retrieved 18 October 2014.
  37. ^ "Glacier-outburst flood from Mýrdalsjökull". Icelandic Weather Office. 11 July 2011. Retrieved 15 June 2024.
  38. ^ Thor Thordarson [in Icelandic]; Ármann Höskuldsson [in Icelandic] (2014). Iceland: Classic Geology in Europe. Dunedin Academic Press Ltd. ISBN 9781780465111.
  39. ^ Nordvig (2019), p. 67.
  40. ^ a b "Katla eða Kötlugjá" . Íslenzkar Þjóðsögur og Æfintýri  (in Icelandic). Vol. 1. 1862. pp. 184–185 – via Wikisource.
  41. ^ a b Nordvig (2019), p. 74–75.
  42. ^ Corrected to nominative case from Nordvig (2019), p. 76.
  43. ^ After Helgi Björnsson (2016), p. 225 "Barði will soon appear". Cf. Zoëga (1922) Icelandic-English dictionary s.v. "brydda" : impers. bryddir á e-u something begins to appear
  44. ^ a b Helgi Björnsson (2016), pp. 224–225.
Bibliography

External links[edit]

Media related to Katla at Wikimedia Commons

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