Israelites

Page semi-protected
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Bnei Israel)
For the citizens of the modern State of Israel, see Israelis. For other uses of "Israelite", see Israelite (disambiguation).

Tribes of Israel
The Tribes of Israel
Other tribes
Related topics

The Israelites (/ˈɪzrəlaɪts, -riə-/;[1][2] Hebrew: בְּנֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל‎, Bənēy Yīsrāʾēl, transl. 'Children of Israel') were a group of Semitic-speaking tribes in the ancient Near East who, during the Iron Age, inhabited a part of Canaan.[3][4][5][6]

The name of Israel first appears in the Merneptah Stele of ancient Egypt, dated to about 1200 BCE. Modern archaeology suggests that the Israelites branched out from the Canaanites through the development of Yahwism, a distinct monolatristic—and later monotheistic—religion centred on the national god Yahweh.[7][8][9][10][11] Because of this, they can be described as an ethnoreligious group.[12] They spoke an archaic form of the Hebrew language, which was a regional variety of the Canaanite language, known today as Biblical Hebrew.[13] In the Iron Age, the kingdoms of Israel and Judah emerged. The Kingdom of Israel, with its capital at Samaria, fell to the Neo-Assyrian Empire around 720 BCE;[14] while the Kingdom of Judah, with its capital at Jerusalem, was destroyed by the Neo-Babylonian Empire in 586 BCE.[15] Some of the Judean population was exiled to Babylon, but returned to Israel after Cyrus the Great conquered the region.[16][17]

According to the Bible, the Israelites are the descendants of Jacob, a patriarch who was later renamed as Israel. Following a severe drought in Canaan, Jacob and his twelve sons fled to Egypt, where they eventually formed the Twelve Tribes of Israel. The Israelites were later led out of slavery in Egypt by Moses and conquered Canaan under Joshua's leadership, who was Moses's successor. Most modern scholars agree that the Torah does not provide an authentic account of the Israelites' origins, and instead view it as constituting their national myth. However, it is supposed that there may be a "historical core" to the narrative.[18][19][20] The Bible also portrays the kingdoms of Israel and Judah as the successors of an earlier United Kingdom of Israel, though the historicity of the latter is disputed.[21][22]

Jews and Samaritans both trace their ancestry to the ancient Israelites.[23][24][25][26] Jews trace their ancestry to tribes that inhabited the Kingdom of Judah, including Judah, Benjamin and partially Levi, while the Samaritans claim their lineage from the remaining members of Ephraim, Manasseh, and Levi who were not deported in the Assyrian captivity after the fall of Israel. Other groups have also claimed affiliation with the Israelites.

Etymology

Part of a series on the
History of Israel
The Western Wall, Jerusalem
Early history
Prehistoric Levant

Canaan

Ancient Israel and Judah
Iron Age I 12th–10th centuries BCE
United Monarchy 10th century BCE
Kingdom of Israel 10th century BCE–720 BCE
Kingdom of Judah 10th century BCE–587 BCE
Babylonian rule 587–538 BCE
Second Temple period
Persian Yehud 538–333 BCE
Hellenistic period 333–164 BCE
Hasmonean dynasty 164–37 BCE
Herodian dynasty 37 BCE–6 CE
Roman Judaea
  • (Jewish-Roman Wars)
    		•  6 CE–136 CE
    Late Antiquity and Middle Ages
    Syria Palaestina 136–395
    Byzantine Palaestina 395–638
    Early Islamic period (Filastin, Urdunn) 638–1099
    Kingdom of Jerusalem 1099–1291
    Ayyubid dynasty 1174–1260
    Mamluk Sultanate 1260–1517
    Modern history
    Modern history (1517–1948)

    State of Israel (1948–present)

    By topic
    Related
    flag Israel portal

    The first reference to Israel in non-biblical sources is found in the Merneptah Stele in c. 1209 BCE. The inscription is very brief and says: "Israel is laid waste and his seed is not". The inscription refers to a people, not an individual or nation state,[27] who are located in central Palestine[28] or the highlands of Samaria.[29] Some Egyptologists suggest that Israel appeared in earlier topographical reliefs, dating to the Nineteenth Dynasty (i.e. reign of Ramesses II) or the Eighteenth Dynasty,[30] but this reading remains controversial.[31][32]

    In the Hebrew Bible, Israel first appears in Genesis 32:29, where an angel gives the name to Jacob after the latter fought with him.[33][34][35] The folk etymology given in the text derives Israel from yisra, "to prevail over" or "to struggle with", and El (god). However, modern scholarship interprets El as the subject, "El rules/struggles",[36][37][38] from sarar (שָׂרַר) 'to rule'[39] (cognate with sar (שַׂר) 'ruler',[40] Akkadian šarru 'ruler, king'[41]), which is likely cognate with the similar root sara (שׂרה) "fought, strove, contended".[42][43]

    Afterwards, Israel referred to the direct descendants of Jacob and gentiles who assimilated in the Israelite community.[44][45] Hebrew is a similar ethnonym but it is usually applied whenever Israelites are economically disadvantaged or migrants. It might also refer to their descent from Eber, the grandson of Noah.[46][47][48][49]

    During the period of the divided monarchy, "Israelites" referred to the inhabitants of the northern Kingdom of Israel, but eventually, included the inhabitants of the Kingdom of Judah in post-exilic usage.[50]

    In literature of the Second Temple period, "Israel" included the members of the united monarchy, the northern kingdom, and eschatological Israel. "Jew" (or "Judean") was another popular ethnonym but it might refer to a geographically restricted sub-group or to the inhabitants of the southern kingdom of Judah.[51][52] In addition, works such as Ezra-Nehemiah pioneered the idea of an "impermeable" distinction between Israel and gentiles, on a genealogical basis.[45] Other scholars argue that the distinction is based on religion.[53]

    In Judaism, "Israelite", broadly speaking, refers to a lay member of the Jewish ethnoreligious group, as opposed to the priestly orders of Kohanim and Levites. In legal texts, such as the Mishnah and Gemara, ישראלי (Yisraeli), or Israelite, is used to describe Jews instead of יהודי (Yehudi), or Jew. In Samaritanism, Samaritans are not Jews יהודים (Yehudim). Instead, they are Israelites, which includes their Jewish brethren, or Israelite Samaritans.[54][55][full citation needed][56]

    Biblical narrative

    Mid-20th century mosaic of the 12 Tribes of Israel, from the Etz Yosef synagogue wall in Givat Mordechai, Jerusalem

    The history of the Israelite people can be divided into these categories, according to the Hebrew Bible:[57]

    Pre-Monarchic Period (unknown to c. 1050 BCE)
    The Israelites were named after their ancestor, Jacob/Israel, who was the grandson of Abraham. They were organized into 12 tribes: Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Dan, Naphtali, Gad, Asher, Issachar, Zebulun, Joseph (or Tribe of Ephraim and Tribe of Manasseh) and Benjamin. Originally, they went to Egypt after a famine in Canaan but were enslaved by the Egyptians.[58] They escaped and organized themselves as a kritarchy,[59] where they followed laws given by Moses. Afterwards, the Israelites conquered Canaan and fought with several neighbors until they established a monarchic state.
    United Monarchy (c. 1050–930 BCE)
    As a monarchic state, the Israelite tribes were united by the leadership of Saul, David and Solomon. The reigns of Saul and David were marked by military victories and Israel's transition to a mini-empire with vassal states.[60][61] Solomon's reign was relatively more peaceful and oversaw the construction of the First Temple,[62] with the help of Phoenician allies.[63] This Temple was where the Ark of the Covenant was stored; its former location was the City of David.[64]
    Divided Monarchy (c. 930–597 BCE)
    Map of the Holy Land, Pietro Vesconte, 1321, showing the allotments of the tribes of Israel. Described by Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld as "the first non-Ptolemaic map of a definite country"[65]
    The monarchic state was divided into two states, Israel and Judah, due to civil and religious disputes. Eventually, Israel and Judah met their demise after the Assyrian and Babylonian invasions respectively. According to the Biblical prophets, these invasions were divine judgments for religious apostasy and corrupt leadership.
    Exilic Period (c. 597–538 BCE)
    Map of the twelve tribes of Israel (before the move of Dan to the north), based on the Book of Joshua
    After the Babylonians invaded Judah, they deported most of its citizens to Babylon, where they lived as "exiles". Cyrus the Great conquered Babylon and established the First Persian Empire in 539 BCE. [66] One year later, according to traditional dating, Cyrus permitted the Judahites to return to their homeland.[66] This homeland was re-named as the Province of Yehud, which eventually became a satrapy of Eber-Nari.[66]
    Persian Period (c. 539–331 BCE)
    In 537–520 BCE, Zerubbabel became Yehud's governor and started work on the Second Temple, which was stopped.[67] In 520–516 BCE, Haggai and Zechariah goaded the Judahites to resume work on the Temple. Upon completion, Joshua became its high priest.[67][67] In 458–433 BCE, Ezra and Nehemiah led another group of Judahites to Yehud, with Artaxerxes's permission. Nehemiah rebuilt the temple after some unspecified disaster and removed foreign influence from the Judahite community.[68][69] That said, some Judahites elected to stay in Persia, where they almost faced annihilation.[70][71]
    Model of the Tabernacle constructed under the auspices of Moses, in Timna Park, Israel

    Historical Israelites

    See also: History of ancient Israel and Judah, History of Israel, and History of Palestine

    Efforts to confirm the biblical ethnogenesis of Israel through archaeology has largely been abandoned as unproductive.[20] Many scholars see the traditional narratives as national myths with little historical value, but some posit that a small group of exiled Egyptians contributed to the Exodus narrative.[a] William G. Dever cautiously identifies this group with the Tribe of Joseph, while Richard Elliott Friedman identifies it with the Tribe of Levi.[75][76] Josephus quoting Manetho identifies them with the Hyksos.[77][78] Other scholars believe that the Exodus narrative was a "collective memory" of several events from the Bronze Age.[79][80]

    In addition, it is unlikely that the Israelites overtook southern Levant by force, according to archaeological evidence. Instead, they branched out of indigenous Canaanite peoples that long inhabited the region, which included Syria, ancient Israel, and the Transjordan region.[81][82][83] Their culture was monolatristic, with a primary focus on Yahweh (or El) worship,[84] but after the Babylonian exile, it became monotheistic, with partial influence from Zoroastrianism. The latter decisively separated the Israelites from other Canaanites[81][7][8] The Israelites used a Canaanite script known as Biblical Hebrew. The script's modern descendant Hebrew is today the only surviving dialect of the Canaanite languages.[85][86]

    Origins

    Ramesses III prisoner tiles depicting precursors of the Israelites in Canaan: Canaanites from city-states and a Shasu leader.[87][88][89]

    Several theories exist for the origins of historical Israelites. Some believe they descended from raiding groups, itinerant nomads such as Habiru and Shasu or impoverished Canaanites, who were forced to leave wealthy urban areas and live in the highlands.[90][28] The prevailing academic opinion is that the Israelites were a mixture of peoples predominately indigenous to Canaan, with additional input from an Egyptian matrix of peoples, which most likely inspired the Exodus narrative.[91][92][93] Israel's demographics were similar to the demographics of Ammon, Edom, Moab and Phoenicia.[92][94][page needed]

    Besides their focus on Yahweh worship, Israelite cultural markers were defined by body, food and time. This included male circumcision, avoidance of pork consumption and marking time based on the Exodus, the reigns of Israelite kings, Sabbath observance etc. The first two markers were observed by neighboring west Semites besides the Philistines, who were of Mycenaean Greek origin. As a result, intermarriage with other Semites was common.[95]

    The Mount Ebal structure, seen by many archeologists as an early Israelite cultic site

    Genealogy was another factor that differentiated the Israelites. It was a matter of cultural self-identity rather than biological descent. For example, foreign clans could adopt the identity of other clans, which subsequently changed their status from "outsider" to "insider". This applied to Israelites from different tribes and gentiles.[45][95] Saul Oylan argued that foreigners automatically became Israelite if they lived in their territory, according to Ezekiel 47:21–23.[96] That said, Israelites used genealogy to engage in narcissism of small differences but also, self-criticism since their ancestors included morally questionable characters such as Jacob. Both these traits represented the "complexities of the Jewish soul".[95]

    In terms of appearance, the Hebrew Bible records figures, such as David, Esau and the lovers in the Song of Songs, as being "ruddy",[97][98] "white and ruddy" and "clear as the moon",[99][100] which aligned with descriptions of Levantine phenotypes in ancient Egyptian and Greek sources.[101][102][103][104][105] Rabbis, on the other hand, described the Biblical Jews as being "midway between black and white" and having the "color of the boxwood tree".[106]

    Israelite men, like other western Semites, have full, round beards according to Egyptian and Assyrian inscriptions. In contrast, their neighbors, such as Babylonians and Egyptians, have long beards and chin tufts respectively but this was an upper-class custom. Joseph's act of shaving (Genesis 41:14) was thought to resemble the Egyptian custom.[107] Merneptah's Karnak reliefs indicate that the early Israelites dressed like other Canaanites, in terms of attire and hairstyle, compared to other groups like the Shasu.[108][109][110]

    Early Israelite settlements

    In the 12th century BCE, many Israelite settlements appeared in the central hill country of Canaan, which was formerly an open terrain. These settlements lacked evidence of pork consumption, compared to Philistine settlements, have four-room houses and lived by an egalitarian ethos, which was exemplified by the absence of elaborate tombs, governor's mansions, certain houses being bigger than others etc. They followed a mixed economy, which prioritized self-sufficiency, cultivation of crops, animal husbandry and small-scale craft production. New technologies such as terraced farming, silos for grain storage and cisterns for rainwater collection were simultaneously introduced.[111]

    These settlements were built by inhabitants of the "general Southland" (i.e. modern Sinai and the southern parts of Israel and Jordan), who abandoned their pastoral-nomadic ways. Canaanites who lived outside the central hill country were tenuously identified as Danites, Asherites, Zebulunites, Issacharites, Naphtalites and Gadites. These inhabitants do not have a significant history of migration besides the Danites, who allegedly originate from the Sea Peoples, particularly the Dan(an)u.[111][112] Nonetheless, they intermingled with the former nomads, due to socioeconomic and military factors. Their interest in Yahwism and its concern for the underprivileged was another factor. Possible allusions to this historical reality in the Hebrew Bible include the aforementioned tribes, except for Issachar and Zebulun, descending from Bilhah and Zilpah, who were viewed as "secondary additions" to Israel.[111]

    Monarchic period

    United Monarchy

    Main article: Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy)
    Part of the gift-bearing Israelite delegation of King Jehu, Black Obelisk, 841–840 BCE.[113]

    The historicity of the United Monarchy is heavily debated among archaeologists and biblical scholars: biblical maximalists and centrists (Kenneth Kitchen, William G. Dever, Amihai Mazar, Baruch Halpern and others) argue that the biblical account is more or less accurate, biblical minimalists (Israel Finkelstein, Ze'ev Herzog, Thomas L. Thompson and others) argue that Israel and Judah never split from a singular state. The debate has not been resolved but recent archaeological discoveries by Eilat Mazar and Yosef Garfinkel show some support for the existence of the United Monarchy.[21]

    From 850 BCE onwards, a series of inscriptions mention the "House of David". They came from Israel's neighbors.[114][115]

    Kingdoms of Israel and Judah

    "To Hezekiah, son of Ahaz, king of Judah" – royal seal found at the Ophel excavations in Jerusalem
    Main articles: Kingdom of Israel (Samaria), Kingdom of Judah, and Babylonian captivity

    Compared to the United Monarchy, the historicity of the Kingdom of Israel and Judah is widely accepted by historians and archaeologists.[116]: 169–195 [117] Their destruction by the Assyrians and Babylonians respectively is also confirmed by archaeological evidence and extrabiblical sources.[118][119][120][121]: 306 [122][123]

    Later history

    Main articles: Jewish History, Samaritans § History, and Ten Lost Tribes

    The Cyrus Cylinder is controversially cited as evidence for Cyrus allowing the Judeans to return to Yehud.[124][125] The returnees showed a "heightened sense" of their ethnic identity and shunned exogamy, which was treated as a "permissive reality" in Babylon.[126][127] Circumcision was no longer a significant ethnic marker, with increased emphasis on genealogical descent or faith in Yahweh.[128][129]

    Exiled non-Judean Israelites were not given the same treatment and assimilated with the local Assyrian population.[130] They were a minority, with the majority remaining in Israel.[131] Contrary to Jewish tradition,[132] the latter were progenitors of the Samaritans, who followed Samaritanism. Only some of the population intermarried with Assyrian settler-colonists, according to genetic and archaeological evidence.[133][134] In their native Samaritan Hebrew, the Samaritans identify as "Israel", "B'nai Israel" or "Shamerim/Shomerim" (i.e. "Guardians/Keepers/Watchers").[135][136][137][138]

    Judeans were progenitors of the Jews, who followed Second Temple Judaism.[139][140] Their religion, particularly the Pharisaical variant, was influenced by Idumeans (or Edomites), who were a significant demographic during the Hasmonean era. They assimilated and intermingled with their neighbours, the Judeans, and later founded the Herodian dynasty, who shaped Judea, Jerusalem and the Second Temple.[141][142][143][144] Some scholars argue that Jews also engaged in active missionary efforts in the Greco-Roman world, which led to conversions.[145][146][147][148][149] Several scholars, such as Scot McKnight and Martin Goodman, reject this view while holding that conversions occasionally occurred.[150]

    Despite their differences, Jews and Samaritans share a connection with the biblical Land of Israel,[151][152][153]. Other groups claim continuity with the Israelites, including Pashtuns,[154][155] British,[156] Black Hebrew Israelites,[157] Mormons,[158] and evangelical Christians that subscribe to covenant theology.[159] Some argue that Palestinians descend from non-exiled Israelites.[160][161]

    Genetics

    Further information: Genetic history of the Middle East and Canaan § Genetic studies
    See also: Genetic studies on Jews and Samaritans § Genetic studies
    A Samaritan elder participates in Passover prayer services held on Mount Gerizim

    A 2004 study (by Shen et al.) comparing Samaritans to several Jewish populations (including Ashkenazi Jews, Iraqi Jews, Libyan Jews, Moroccan Jews, and Yemenite Jews) found that "the principal components analysis suggested a common ancestry of Samaritan and Jewish patrilineages. Most of the former may be traced back to a common ancestor in what is today identified as the paternally inherited Israelite high priesthood (Cohanim), with a common ancestor projected to the time of the Assyrian conquest of the kingdom of Israel."[162]

    A 2020 study (by Agranat-Tamr et al.) stated that there was genetic continuity between Bronze Age and Iron Age southern Levantines, which included the Israelites and Judahites. These southern Levantines could be "modeled as a mixture of local earlier Neolithic populations and populations from the northeastern part of the Near East (e.g. Hurrians, Caucasians etc.)". Reasons for the continuity include resilience from the Bronze Age collapse, which was mostly true for inland cities such as Tel Megiddo and Tel Abel Beth Maacah.[163]

    See also

    Notes

    1. ^ "While there is a consensus among scholars that the Exodus did not take place in the manner described in the Bible, surprisingly most scholars agree that the narrative has a historical core, and that some of the highland settlers came, one way or another, from Egypt ..." "Archaeology does not really contribute to the debate over the historicity or even historical background of the Exodus itself, but if there was indeed such a group, it contributed the Exodus story to that of all Israel. While I agree that it is most likely that there was such a group, I must stress that this is based on an overall understanding of the development of collective memory and of the authorship of the texts (and their editorial process). Archaeology, unfortunately, cannot directly contribute (yet?) to the study of this specific group of Israel's ancestors."[74]

    References

    1. ^ "Israelite". Lexico UK English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 23 November 2021.
    2. ^ "Israelite". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary.
    3. ^ Finkelstein, Israel. "Ethnicity and origin of the Iron I settlers in the Highlands of Canaan: Can the real Israel stand up?" The Biblical Archaeologist 59.4 (1996): 198–212.
    4. ^ Finkelstein, Israel. The archaeology of the Israelite settlement. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society, 1988.
    5. ^ Finkelstein, Israel, and Nadav Na'aman, eds. From nomadism to monarchy: archaeological and historical aspects of early Israel. Yad Izhak Ben-Zvi, 1994.
    6. ^ Finkelstein, Israel. "The archaeology of the United Monarchy: an alternative view". Levant 28.1 (1996): 177–187.
    7. ^ a b Mark Smith in "The Early History of God: Yahweh and Other Deities of Ancient Israel" states "Despite the long regnant model that the Canaanites and Israelites were people of fundamentally different culture, archaeological data now casts doubt on this view. The material culture of the region exhibits numerous common points between Israelites and Canaanites in the Iron I period (c. 1200–1000 BCE). The record would suggest that the Israelite culture largely overlapped with and derived from Canaanite culture ... In short, Israelite culture was largely Canaanite in nature. Given the information available, one cannot maintain a radical cultural separation between Canaanites and Israelites for the Iron I period." (pp. 6–7). Smith, Mark (2002). The Early History of God: Yahweh and Other Deities of Ancient Israel. Eerdmans.
    8. ^ a b Rendsberg, Gary (2008). "Israel without the Bible". In Frederick E. Greenspahn. The Hebrew Bible: New Insights and Scholarship. NYU Press. pp. 3–5.
    9. ^ Gnuse, Robert Karl (1997). No Other Gods: Emergent Monotheism in Israel. England: Sheffield Academic Press. pp. 28, 31. ISBN 1-85075-657-0.
    10. ^ Haran, Menahem (1996). Texts, Temples and Traditions. Eisenbrauns. ISBN 978-1-57506-003-3. It is also clear that there were polytheistic Yahwists in ancient Israel who worshiped YHWH along with other deities
    11. ^ Collins, Steven; Holden, Joseph M. (18 February 2020). The Harvest Handbook of Bible Lands: A Panoramic Survey of the History, Geography, and Culture of the Scriptures. Harvest House. ISBN 978-0-7369-7542-1. At its inception, early Yahwism had animistic and polytheistic elements
    12. ^ Sparks, Kenton L. (1998). Ethnicity and Identity in Ancient Israel: Prolegomena to the Study of Ethnic Sentiments and Their Expression in the Hebrew Bible. Eisenbrauns. pp. 146–148. ISBN 978-1-57506-033-0.
    13. ^ Steiner, Richard C. (1997). "Ancient Hebrew". In Hetzron, Robert (ed.). The Semitic Languages. Routledge. pp. 145–173. ISBN 978-0-415-05767-7.
    14. ^ Broshi, Maguen (2001). Bread, Wine, Walls and Scrolls. Bloomsbury. p. 174. ISBN 978-1-84127-201-6. Archived from the original on 10 February 2023. Retrieved 8 February 2022.
    15. ^ Faust, Avraham (29 August 2012). Judah in the Neo-Babylonian Period. Society of Biblical Literature. p. 1. doi:10.2307/j.ctt5vjz28. ISBN 978-1-58983-641-9.
    16. ^ Stökl, Jonathan; Waerzegger, Caroline (2015). Exile and Return: The Babylonian Context. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 7–11, 30, 226.
    17. ^ Encyclopaedia Judaica. Vol. 3 (2nd ed.). p. 27.
    18. ^ Faust 2015, p.476: "While there is a consensus among scholars that the Exodus did not take place in the manner described in the Bible, surprisingly most scholars agree that the narrative has a historical core, and that some of the highland settlers came, one way or another, from Egypt ...".
    19. ^ Redmount 2001, p. 61: "A few authorities have concluded that the core events of the Exodus saga are entirely literary fabrications. But most biblical scholars still subscribe to some variation of the Documentary Hypothesis, and support the basic historicity of the biblical narrative."
    20. ^ a b Dever, William (2001). What Did the Biblical Writers Know, and When Did They Know It?. Eerdmans. pp. 98–99. ISBN 3-927120-37-5. After a century of exhaustive investigation, all respectable archaeologists have given up hope of recovering any context that would make Abraham, Isaac, or Jacob credible 'historical figures' ... archaeological investigation of Moses and the Exodus has similarly been discarded as a fruitless pursuit.
    21. ^ a b Thomas, Zachary (22 April 2016). "Debating the United Monarchy: Let's See How Far We've Come". Biblical Theology Bulletin. 46 (2): 59–69. doi:10.1177/0146107916639208. ISSN 0146-1079. S2CID 147053561.
    22. ^ Lipschits, Oded (2014). "The history of Israel in the biblical period". In Berlin, Adele; Brettler, Marc Zvi (eds.). The Jewish Study Bible (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 2107–2119. ISBN 978-0-19-997846-5. Archived from the original on 9 April 2023. Retrieved 16 May 2022. As this essay will show, however, the premonarchic period long ago became a literary description of the mythological roots, the early beginnings of the nation and the way to describe the right of Israel on its land. The archeological evidence also does not support the existence of a united monarchy under David and Solomon as described in the Bible, so the rubric of 'united monarchy' is best abandoned, although it remains useful for discussing how the Bible views the Israelite past. ... Although the kingdom of Judah is mentioned in some ancient inscriptions, they never suggest that it was part of a unit comprised of Israel and Judah. There are no extrabiblical indications of a united monarchy called 'Israel'.
    23. ^ Adams, Hannah (1840). The history of the Jews: from the destruction of Jerusalem to the present time. Duncan and Malcolm and Wertheim. OCLC 894671497.
    24. ^ Brenner, Michael (2010). A short history of the Jews. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-14351-4. OCLC 463855870.
    25. ^ Ostrer, Harry (2012). Legacy: A Genetic History of the Jewish People. Oxford University Press USA. ISBN 978-1-280-87519-9. OCLC 798209542.
    26. ^ Kartveit, Magnar (1 January 2014). "Review of Knoppers, Gary N., Jews and Samaritans: The Origins and History of Their Early Relations (Oxford: Oxford University Press 2013)". Journal of Hebrew Scriptures. 14. doi:10.5508/jhs.2014.v14.r25. ISSN 1203-1542.
    27. ^ Greenspahn, Frederick E. (2008). The Hebrew Bible: New Insights and Scholarship. NYU Press. pp. 12ff. ISBN 978-0-8147-3187-1. Archived from the original on 1 July 2023. Retrieved 14 January 2018.
    28. ^ a b Van der Toorn, K. (196). Family Religion in Babylonia, Ugarit and Israel: Continuity and Changes in the Forms of Religious Life. Brill. pp. 181, 282.
    29. ^ Grabbe 2008, p. 75.
    30. ^ Van der Veern, Peter, et al. "Israel in Canaan (Long) Before Pharaoh Merenptah? A Fresh Look at Berlin Statue Pedestal Relief 21687". Journal of Ancient Egyptian Interconnections. pp. 15–25.
    31. ^ Romer, Thomas (2015). The Invention of God, Harvard. p. 75.
    32. ^ Dijkstra, Meindert (2017). "Canaan in the Transition from the Late Bronze to the Early Iron Age from an Egyptian Perspective". In Grabbe, Lester, ed. The Land of Canaan in the Late Bronze Age. Bloomsbury. p. 62, n. 17
    33. ^ Genesis 32:29
    34. ^ Scherman, Rabbi Nosson, ed. (2006). The Chumash. The Artscroll Series. Mesorah. pp. 176–77.
    35. ^ Kaplan, Aryeh (1985). "Jewish Meditation". New York: Schocken. p. 125.
    36. ^ Hamilton, Victor (1995). The Book of Genesis, Chapters 18–50. Wm. B. Eerdmans. p. 334. ISBN 0-8028-2521-4.
    37. ^ Wenham, Gordon (1994). Word Biblical Commentary. Vol. 2: Genesis 16–50. Dallas, Texas: Word Books. pp. 296–97.
    38. ^ Berlin, Adele; Brettler, Marc (2004). The Jewish Study Bible: Jewish Publication Society Tanakh Translation. Oxford University Press. p. 68.
    39. ^ "שׂרר". Sefaria. Archived from the original on 21 September 2020. Retrieved 5 August 2020.
    40. ^ "Klein Dictionary, שַׂר". www.sefaria.org. Archived from the original on 21 September 2020. Retrieved 5 August 2020.
    41. ^ "šarru". Akkadian Dictionary. Association Assyrophile de France. Archived from the original on 29 October 2020. Retrieved 5 August 2020.
    42. ^ "שׂרה". Sefaria. Archived from the original on 21 September 2020. Retrieved 5 August 2020.
    43. ^ Even-Shoshan, Avraham. "שׂרה". Even-Shoshan Dictionary.
    44. ^ Genesis 35:22–26
    45. ^ a b c Hayes, Christine E. (2002). Gentile Impurities and Jewish Identities: Intermarriage and Conversion from the Bible to the Talmud. Oxford University Press. pp. 19–44. ISBN 978-0-19-983427-3.
    46. ^ William David. Reyburn, Euan McG. Fry. A Handbook on Genesis. New York: United Bible Societies. 1997.
    47. ^ D. Friedberg, Albert (22 February 2017). "Who Were the Hebrews?". The Torah.com. Archived from the original on 28 November 2023.
    48. ^ "Genesis 14 MacLaren Expositions Of Holy Scripture". Biblehub.com. 2024. Archived from the original on 8 February 2024.
    49. ^ Flavius Josephus - Antiquities of The Jews, Book I, Chapter VI, Paragraph 4: Greek: Ἀρφαξάδου δὲ παῖς γίνεται Σάλης, τοῦ δὲ Ἕβερος, ἀφ᾽ οὗ τοὺς Ἰουδαίους Ἑβραίους ἀρχῆθεν ἐκάλουν: Ἕβερος δὲ Ἰούκταν καὶ Φάλεγον ἐγέννησεν: ἐκλήθη δὲ Φάλεγος, ἐπειδὴ κατὰ τὸν ἀποδασμὸν τῶν οἰκήσεων τίκτεται: φαλὲκ γὰρ τὸν μερισμὸν Ἑβραῖοι καλοῦσιν., lit. 'Sala was the son of Arphaxad; and his son was Heber, from whom they originally called the Jews Hebrews. Heber begat Joetan and Phaleg: he was called Phaleg, because he was born at the dispersion of the nations to their several countries; for Phaleg among the Hebrews signifies division.'
    50. ^ Cate, Robert L. (1990). "Israelite". In Mills, Watson E.; Bullard, Roger Aubrey. Mercer Dictionary of the Bible. Mercer University Press. p. 420.
    51. ^ Van Maaren, John (23 May 2022). "The Ethnic Boundary Making Model: Preliminary Marks". The Boundaries of Jewishness in the Southern Levant 200 BCE – 132 CE. De Gruyter. p. 5.
    52. ^ Danker, Frederick W. "Ioudaios", in A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature. third edition University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-03933-6
    53. ^ Venter, Pieter M. (2018). "The dissolving of marriages in Ezra 9-10 and Nehemiah 13 revisited". HTS Theological Studies. 74 (4) – via Scielo.
    54. ^ Ben 'Aamraam, Yesaahq (2013). Samaritan Exegesis: A Compilation of Writings from the Samaritans. ISBN 1-4827-7081-4.
    55. ^ Benyamim Tsedaka, at 1:24 Archived 25 May 2015 at the Wayback Machine
    56. ^ John Bowman (1977). Samaritan Documents Relating to Their History, Religion and Life. Pittsburgh Original Texts and Translations Series No. 2. ISBN 0-915138-27-1.
    57. ^ a b Dearman, J. Andrew (2018). Reading Hebrew Bible Narratives. Oxford University Press. pp. 113–129. ISBN 978-0-19-024652-5.
    58. ^ Bereshith, Genesis
    59. ^ Exodus 18:13–26
    60. ^ "1 Samuel 14: Henry's Complete Commentary on the Bible". StudyLight.org. 2022. Archived from the original on 23 January 2024.
    61. ^ 2 Sam 8:1–14
    62. ^ Tetley 2005, p. 105.
    63. ^ Dever 2005, p. 97; Mendels 1987, p. 131; Brand & Mitchell 2015, p. 1538
    64. ^ Barnes, W. E. (1899), Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges on 2 Chronicles 5, accessed 17 April 2020
    65. ^ Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld (1889). Facsimile-atlas to the Early History of Cartography: With Reproductions of the Most Important Maps Printed in the XV and XVI Centuries. Kraus. pp. 51, 64.
    66. ^ a b c Grabbe 2004, pp. 209–216, 267, 271–276.
    67. ^ a b c Grabbe 2004, pp. 278–285.
    68. ^ Myers, Jacob M. (1964). Ezra, Nehemiah. Anchor Bible Series 14. Garden City, New York: Doubleday. pp. XXXVI–XXXVII, LXX. LCCN 65-23788.
    69. ^ Grabbe 2004, pp. 292–310, 356–357.
    70. ^ "Esther 3 Barnes' Notes". Biblehub.com. 2024. Archived from the original on 13 February 2024.
    71. ^ "Esther 9 Barnes' Notes". TheTorah.com. 2024. Archived from the original on 12 February 2024.
    72. ^ Grabbe 2004, pp. 85–90.
    73. ^ Grabbe 2004, pp. 85–106.
    74. ^ Faust 2015, p. 476.
    75. ^ Dever 2003, p. 231.
    76. ^ Friedman, Richard Elliott (12 September 2017). The Exodus. HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-256526-6. Archived from the original on 1 July 2023. Retrieved 15 May 2022.
    77. ^ Assmann, Jan (2003). The Mind of Egypt: History and Meaning in the Time of the Pharaohs. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-01211-0.
    78. ^ L 186 Josephus I Life Against Apion.
    79. ^ Na'aman 2011, pp. 62–69.
    80. ^ Cohen, Rudolph (1983). "The Mysterious MBI People". Biblical Archaeology Society. Archived from the original on 14 March 2024.
    81. ^ a b Tubb 1998, pp. 13–14.
    82. ^ McNutt 1999, p. 47.
    83. ^ K. L. Noll (2001). Canaan and Israel in Antiquity: An Introduction. Archived 1 July 2023 at the Wayback Machine A&C Black. p. 164: "It would seem that, in the eyes of Merneptah's artisans, Israel was a Canaanite group indistinguishable from all other Canaanite groups." "It is likely that Merneptah's Israel was a group of Canaanites located in the Jezreel Valley."
    84. ^ Cross 1973.
    85. ^ Moore Cross, Frank (1997). Canaanite Myth and Hebrew Epic: Essays in History of the Religion of Israel. Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. p. 62. ISBN 0-674-09176-0.
    86. ^ Kuzar, Ron (2001). Hebrew and Zionism: a discourse analytic cultural study. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. p. 235. ISBN 3-11-016993-2.
    87. ^ "Shasu or Habiru: Who Were the Early Israelites?". The BAS Library. 24 August 2015. Archived from the original on 16 October 2022. Retrieved 16 October 2022.
    88. ^ "Israelites as Canaanites". Macrohistory: World History. Archived from the original on 3 January 2019. Retrieved 3 March 2019.
    89. ^ "Inside, Outside: Where Did the Early Israelites Come From?". The BAS Library. 24 August 2015. Archived from the original on 16 October 2022. Retrieved 16 October 2022.
    90. ^ Killebrew, Ann E. (2020). "Early Israel's Origins, Settlement, and Ethnogenesis". In Kelle, Brad E.; Strawn, Brent A. (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of the Historical Books of the Hebrew Bible. Oxford University Press. pp. 79–93. ISBN 978-0-19-026116-0. Archived from the original on 31 March 2023. Retrieved 31 March 2023.
    91. ^ Mittleman, Alan (2010). "Judaism: Covenant, Pluralism and Piety". In Turner, Bryan S., ed. The New Blackwell Companion to the Sociology of Religion. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 340–363, 346.
    92. ^ a b Gottwald, Norman (1999). Tribes of Yahweh: A Sociology of the Religion of Liberated Israel, 1250–1050 BCE. A&C Black. p. 433. cf. 455–56.
    93. ^ Gabriel, Richard A. (2003). The Military History of Ancient Israel. Greenwood. p. 63: "The ethnically mixed character of the Israelites is reflected even more clearly in the foreign names of the group's leadership. Moses himself, of course, has an Egyptian name. But so do Hophni, Phinehas, Hur, and Merari, the son of Levi."
    94. ^ Tubb 1998.
    95. ^ a b c Hendel, Ronald (2005). Remembering Abraham: Culture, Memory, and History in the Hebrew Bible. Oxford University Press. pp. 3–30. ISBN 978-0-19-978462-2.
    96. ^ Olyan, Saul (2000). Rites and Rank: Hierarchy in Biblical Representations of Cult. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-02948-1.
    97. ^ Harvey, John E. (22 June 2004). Retelling the Torah: The Deuternonmistic Historian's Use of Tetrateuchal Narratives. A&C Black. p. 64. ISBN 978-0-567-08095-0. OCLC 1091803543.
    98. ^ McKenzie, Steven L. (27 April 2000). King David: A Biography. Oxford University Press. p. 65. ISBN 978-0-19-535101-9. OCLC 1035651169.
    99. ^ Hillers, Delbert R. (11 February 2015). W. Dobbs-Allsopp, F. (ed.). Poets Before Homer: Collected Essays on Ancient Literature. Penn State Press. p. 19. ISBN 978-1-57506-723-0. OCLC 1055388179.
    100. ^ Melamed, Abraham (2 September 2003). The Image of the Black in Jewish Culture: A History of the Other. Routledge. pp. 35, 212. ISBN 978-1-135-78983-1.
    101. ^ "The first are RETH, the second are AAMU, the third are NEHESU, and the fourth are THEMEHU. The RETH are Egyptians, the AAMU are dwellers in the deserts to the east and north-east of Egypt, the NEHESU are the Cushites, and the THEMEHU are the fair-skinned Libyans". Book of Gates, chapter VI (Archived 10 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine), translated by E. A. Wallis Budge, 1905.
    102. ^ Thavapalan 2019, pp. 155–156: "As a point of correlation to visual culture, one can observe that in Egyptian art too, Nubians from the south are painted black. Egyptian natives were portrayed with a red-brown complexion, Syrians or Asiatic peoples from the north and east were shown in pale tones and Libyans from the west were represented in white".
    103. ^ Premnath, D. N. Eighth Century Prophets: a Social Analysis. Chalice Press. p. 73. ISBN 978-0-8272-0831-5.
    104. ^ Godbey, Allen Howard (1974). The Lost Tribes a Myth: Suggestions Towards Rewriting Hebrew History. Ktav. p. 60. ISBN 978-0-87068-198-1. OCLC 1018047360.
    105. ^ Dantzig, Tobias (17 November 2006). Mathematics in Ancient Greece. Courier. p. 21. ISBN 978-0-486-45347-7. OCLC 1022689821.
    106. ^ Goldenberg 2009, p. 95.
    107. ^ Adler, Cyrus; Muller, W. Max; Ginzberg, Louis. "Beard". The Jewish Encyclopedia. Archived from the original on 14 March 2024.
    108. ^ Yurco, Frank J. (1986). "Merenptah's Canaanite Campaign". Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt. 23: 195, 207. doi:10.2307/40001099. JSTOR 40001099.
    109. ^ Hasel, Michael G. (2003). Nakhai, Beth Alpert (ed.). "Merenptah's Inscription and Reliefs and the Origin of Israel (The Near East in the Southwest: Essays in Honor of William G. Dever)". Annual of the American Schools of Oriental Research. 58. Boston: American Schools of Oriental Research: 27–36. ISBN 0-89757-065-0. JSTOR 3768554.
    110. ^ Stager, Lawrence E. (2001). "Forging an Identity: The Emergence of Ancient Israel". In Coogan, Michael (ed.). The Oxford History of the Biblical World. Oxford University Press. p. 92. ISBN 0-19-508707-0.
    111. ^ a b c Rendsburg, Gary A. (2021). John Merill; Hershel Shanks (eds.). Ancient Israel: From Abraham to the Roman Destruction of the Temple. Biblical Archaeology Society. pp. 59–91. ISBN 978-1-880317-23-5.
    112. ^ Mark W. Bartusch, Understanding Dan: an exegetical study of a biblical city, tribe and ancestor, Volume 379 of Journal for the study of the Old Testament: Supplement series, Continuum International Publishing Group, 2003
    113. ^ Delitzsch, Friedrich; McCormack, Joseph; Carruth, William Herbert; Robinson, Lydia Gillingham (1906). Babel and Bible;. Chicago: The Open Court. p. 78.
    114. ^ Joffe 2002, p. 450.
    115. ^ "Divided Kingdom, United Critics". Biblical Archaeology Society. 2 July 2014. Archived from the original on 9 April 2019. Retrieved 25 April 2021.
    116. ^ Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2001). The Bible unearthed: archaeology's new vision of ancient Israel and the origin of its stories (1st Touchstone ed.). New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-684-86912-4.
    117. ^ Wright, Jacob L. (July 2014). "David, King of Judah (Not Israel)". The Bible and Interpretation. Archived from the original on 1 March 2021. Retrieved 15 May 2021.
    118. ^ Broshi, Maguen (2001). Bread, Wine, Walls and Scrolls. Bloomsbury. p. 174. ISBN 978-1-84127-201-6. Archived from the original on 10 February 2023. Retrieved 8 February 2022.
    119. ^ "British Museum – Cuneiform tablet with part of the Babylonian Chronicle (605–594 BCE)". Archived from the original on 30 October 2014. Retrieved 30 October 2014.
    120. ^ "ABC 5 (Jerusalem Chronicle)". www.livius.org. Archived from the original on 5 May 2019. Retrieved 8 February 2022.
    121. ^ Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2001). The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Its Sacred Texts. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-684-86912-4.
    122. ^ Faust, Avraham (2012). Judah in the Neo-Babylonian Period: The Archaeology of Desolation. Society of Biblical Lit. pp. 140–143. ISBN 978-1-58983-641-9.
    123. ^ Yardenna Alexandre (2020). "The Settlement History of Nazareth in the Iron Age and Early Roman Period". 'Atiqot. 98. Archived from the original on 26 May 2020. Retrieved 26 May 2020.
    124. ^ Winn Leith, Mary Joan (2001) [1998]. "Israel among the Nations: The Persian Period". In Michael David Coogan (ed.). The Oxford History of the Biblical World (Google Books). Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. p. 285. ISBN 0-19-513937-2. LCCN 98016042. OCLC 44650958. Retrieved 14 December 2012.
    125. ^ Becking, Bob (2006). ""We All Returned as One!": Critical Notes on the Myth of the Mass Return". In Lipschitz, Oded; Oeming, Manfred (eds.). Judah and the Judeans in the Persian Period. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns. p. 8. ISBN 978-1-57506-104-7.
    126. ^ Katherine ER. Southward, Ethnicity and the Mixed Marriage Crisis in Ezra, 9–10: An Anthropological Approach, Oxford University Press 2012 pp.103–203, esp. p.193.
    127. ^ Pearce, Laurie (2022). "Jews Intermarried Not Only in Judea but Also in Babylonia". TheTorah.com. Archived from the original on 12 April 2024.
    128. ^ Thiessen, Matthew (2011). Contesting Conversion: Genealogy, Circumcision, and Identity in Ancient Judaism and Christianity. Oxford University Press. pp. 87–110. ISBN 978-0-19-991445-6.
    129. ^ Lau, Peter H.W. (2009). "Gentile Incorporation into Israel in Ezra - Nehemiah?". Peeters Publishers. 90 (3): 356–373 – via JSTOR.
    130. ^ Lyman, Stanford M. (1998). "The Lost Tribes of Israel as a Problem in History and Sociology". International Journal of Politics, Culture, and Society. 12 (1): 7–42. doi:10.1023/A:1025902603291. JSTOR 20019954. S2CID 141243508.
    131. ^ Tobolowsky, Andrew, ed. (2022), "The Tribes That Were Not Lost: The Samaritans", The Myth of the Twelve Tribes of Israel: New Identities Across Time and Space, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 66–106, doi:10.1017/9781009091435.003, ISBN 978-1-316-51494-8, retrieved 25 August 2022
    132. ^ Pummer, Reinhard (2016). The Samaritans: A Profile. Eerdmans. p. 13. ISBN 978-0-8028-6768-1.
    133. ^ Cline, Eric H. (2008). From Eden to Exile: Unraveling Mysteries of the Bible. National Geographic (US). ISBN 978-1-4262-0208-7.
    134. ^ Shen, Peidong; Lavi, Tal; Kivisild, Toomas; Chou, Vivian; Sengun, Deniz; Gefel, Dov; Shpirer, Issac; Woolf, Eilon; Hillel, Jossi; Feldman, Marcus W.; Oefner, Peter J. (2004). "Reconstruction of patrilineages and matrilineages of Samaritans and other Israeli populations from Y-Chromosome and mitochondrial DNA sequence Variation". Human Mutation. 24 (3): 248–260. doi:10.1002/humu.20077. ISSN 1059-7794. PMID 15300852. S2CID 1571356.
    135. ^ Manzur 1979.
    136. ^ Bowman, John (8 February 1963). "BANŪ ISRĀ'ĪL IN THE QUR'ĀN". Islamic Studies. 2 (4). Islamic Research Institute: 447–455. JSTOR 20832712. This tiny community called by the Jews and the Christians, the Samaritans, call themselves Israel or Shomerim, the Keepers (of the Torah, i.e., Tawr?t).
    137. ^ "The Samaritan Identity". The Israelite Samaritan Community in Israel. Retrieved 15 September 2023. Our real name is, 'Bene- Yisrael Ha -Shamerem (D'nU- -D'7nU) - in Hebrew , which means 'The Keepers', or to be precise, the Israelite - Keepers, as we observe the ancient Israelite tradition, since the time of our prophet Moses and the people of Israel. The modern terms, 'Samaritans' and 'Jews', given by the Assyrians, indicate the settlement of the Samaritans in the area of Samaria, and the Jews in the area of Judah.
    138. ^ "The Keepers: Israelite Samaritan Identity". Israelite Samaritan Information Institute. 26 May 2020. Retrieved 15 September 2023. We are not Samaritans; this is what the Assyrians called the people of Samaria. We, The Keepers, Sons of Israel, Keepers of the Word of the Torah, never adopted the name Samaritans. Our forefathers only used the name when speaking to outsiders about our community. Through the ages we have referred to ourselves as The Keepers.
    139. ^ Catherine Cory (13 August 2015). Christian Theological Tradition. Routledge. p. 20 and forwards. ISBN 978-1-317-34958-7.
    140. ^ Stephen Benko (1984). Pagan Rome and the Early Christians. Indiana University Press. p. 22 and forwards. ISBN 978-0-253-34286-7.
    141. ^ Levin, Yigal (24 September 2020). "The Religion of Idumea and Its Relationship to Early Judaism". Religions. 11 (10): 487. doi:10.3390/rel11100487. ISSN 2077-1444.
    142. ^ Katz, Hayah (2014). "Biblical Purification: Was It Immersion?". TheTorah.com. Archived from the original on 23 March 2024.
    143. ^ Marshak, Adam Kolman (1 January 2012). "Rise of the Idumeans: Ethnicity and Politics in Herod's Judea". Jewish Identity and Politics Between the Maccabees and Bar Kokhba: 117–129. doi:10.1163/9789004218512_008. ISBN 978-90-04-21851-2.
    144. ^ Strabo, Geography Bk.16.2.34
    145. ^ Sand, Shlomo; Ilany, Ofri (21 March 2008). "Shattering a 'National Mythology'". Haaretz. Tel Aviv. Archived from the original on 24 May 2018. Retrieved 30 August 2020. The people did not spread, but the Jewish religion spread. Judaism was a converting religion. Contrary to popular opinion, in early Judaism there was a great thirst to convert others. The Hasmoneans were the first to begin to produce large numbers of Jews through mass conversion, under the influence of Hellenism. The conversions between the Hasmonean Revolt and Bar Kochba's rebellion are what prepared the ground for the subsequent, wide-spread dissemination of Christianity. After the victory of Christianity in the fourth century, the momentum of conversion was stopped in the Christian world, and there was a steep drop in the number of Jews. Presumably many of the Jews who appeared around the Mediterranean became Christians. But then Judaism started to permeate other regions – pagan regions, for example, such as Yemen and North Africa. Had Judaism not continued to advance at that stage and had it not continued to convert people in the pagan world, we would have remained a completely marginal religion, if we survived at all.
    146. ^ Louis H. Feldman, "The Omnipresence of the God-Fearers", Biblical Archaeology Review 12, 5 (1986), Center for Online Judaic Studies.
    147. ^ Shaye J. D. Cohen, From the Maccabees to the Mishnah (1989), pp. 55–59, Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster John Knox Press, ISBN 978-0-664-25017-1.
    148. ^ A. T. Kraabel, J. Andrew Overman, Robert S. MacLennan, Diaspora Jews and Judaism: essays in honor of, and in dialogue with, A. Thomas Kraabel (1992), Scholars Press, ISBN 978-15-55406-96-7. "As pious gentiles, the God-fearers stood somewhere between Greco-Roman piety and Jewish piety in the synagogue. In his classic but now somewhat outdated study titled Judaism in the First Centuries of the Christian Era, Harvard scholar George Foot Moore argued that the existence of the God-fearers provides evidence for the synagogue's own missionary work outside of Palestine during the first century C.E. The God-fearers were the result of this Jewish missionary movement."
    149. ^ Goodman, Martin (2006). Judaism in the Roman World. Brill. ISBN 978-90-47-41061-4.
    150. ^ Gregerman, Adam (2009). "The Lack of Evidence for a Jewish Christian Countermission in Galatia". Studies in Christian-Jewish Relations. 4 (1): 13. doi:10.6017/scjr.v4i1.1513. ISSN 1930-3777.
    151. ^ p.xxxv, R. Yisrael Meir haKohen (Chofetz Chayim), The Concise Book of Mitzvoth. This version of the list was prepared in 1968.
    152. ^ The Ramban's addition to the Rambam's Sefer HaMitzvot.
    153. ^ "ABOUT ISRAELITE SAMARITANS". Israelite Samaritan Information Institute. 2024. Archived from the original on 12 April 2024.
    154. ^ Houtsma, Martijn Theodoor (1987). E.J. Brill's first encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913–1936. Vol. 2. BRILL. p. 150. ISBN 90-04-08265-4. Retrieved 24 September 2010.
    155. ^ Oreck, Alden. "The Virtual Jewish History Tour, Afghanistan". Jewish Virtual Library. Retrieved 10 January 2007.
    156. ^ Brackney, William H. (3 May 2012). Historical Dictionary of Radical Christianity. Scarecrow Press. pp. 61–62. ISBN 978-0-8108-7365-0. Retrieved 9 April 2017.
    157. ^ Lee, Morgan (24 January 2019). "The Hebrew Israelites in That March for Life Viral Video, Explained". Christianity Today. Retrieved 22 May 2020.
    158. ^ Davies, W.D. "Israel, the Mormons and the Land". Religious Studies Center. Archived from the original on 12 April 2024.
    159. ^ Wellum, Stephen (2023). "Dispensational and Covenant Theology". Christ Over All. Archived from the original on 12 April 2024.
    160. ^ Gil, Moshe. [1983] 1997. A History of Palestine, 634–1099. Cambridge University Press. pp. 222–3: "David Ben-Gurion and Yitzhak Ben-Zvi claimed that the population at the time of the Arab conquest was mainly Christian, of Jewish origins, which underwent conversion to avoid a tax burden, basing their argument on 'the fact that at the time of the Arab conquest, the population of Palestine was mainly Christian, and that during the Crusaders' conquest some four hundred years later, it was mainly Muslim. As neither the Byzantines nor the Muslims carried out any large-scale population resettlement projects, the Christians were the offspring of the Jewish and Samaritan farmers who converted to Christianity in the Byzantine period; while the Muslim fellaheen in Palestine in modern times are descendants of those Christians who were the descendants of Jews, and had turned to Islam before the Crusaders' conquest."
    161. ^ A tragic misunderstanding – Times online, 13 January 2009.
    162. ^ "Reconstruction of Patrilineages and Matrilineages of Samaritans and Other Israeli Populations From Y-Chromosome and Mitochondrial DNA Sequence Variation" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 May 2013. Retrieved 10 May 2010. (855 KB), Hum Mutat 24:248–260, 2004.
    163. ^ Agranat-Tamir, Lily; et al. (28 May 2020). "The Genomic History of the Bronze Age Southern Levant". Cell. 181 (5): 1146–1157.e11. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2020.04.024. ISSN 0092-8674. PMC 10212583. PMID 32470400. S2CID 219105441.

    Sources

    Further reading

    Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Israelites&oldid=1219229909"